Second-Temple Literature

The Old Testament Apocrypha (labelled "the Deuterocanon" by Catholic and Orthodox Christians) are ancient Jewish texts preserved by Christians throughout the ages because of their commentary and profound insights into the Old Testament, as well as the theological and historical background they provide for the New Testament. They include stories shaped by Hebrew-Bible nerds that inspire hope in the midst of suffering; wisdom literature that provides some of the most ancient commentary on the Torah and profound proto-Trinitarian ideals—they even include ancient extrabiblical "fan fiction" (see also Old Testament Pseudepigrapha) below.

On this page, you will find:

• An extensive index for the Apocrypha's connections to the Old and New Testaments

• A bibliography of various sources providing overviews, background, and commentary on the Apocrypha

• An overview of each apocryphon, examining its message in its context, according to its literary design

• A podcast episode corresponding to the overviews, giving an even further in-depth explanation of the apocrypha

The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha are ancient Jewish and Christian texts written under the names of famous canonical characters. However, these are not old scams or frauds—they are ancient "fan fictions" exploring and explicating deep theological ideas already embedded in the canon. These texts include 1 Enoch, 2 Esdras, 3 and 4 Maccabees, and many, many more!

On this page, you will find:

• An extensive index for the Pseudepigrapha's connections to the Old and New Testaments

• A bibliography of various sources providing overviews, background, and commentary on the Pseudepigrapha

• An overview of each pseudepigraphon (currently only 2 Esdras), examining its message in its context, according to its literary design

The Dead Sea Scrolls are ancient texts uncovered less than a century ago that give profound insights into the theology, practices, and customs of an otherwise lost Jewish sect. This "Essenoid" library includes commentary on the Old Testament, rules for the community (some of which correspond to debates Jesus had with Jews in his day), and other original sectarian writings. Half of these texts have an underlying theology closer to Christianity than anything else; the other half show a Jewish sect set on rules that directly contradict Jesus' more gracious interpretation of the Torah.

On this page, you will find:

• An extensive index for the Dead Sea Scrolls' connections to the Old and New Testaments

• A bibliography of various sources providing overviews, background, and commentary on the Dead Sea Scrolls

• An outline of all the Dead Sea Scrolls rules

• A summary of the Dead Sea Scrolls eschatological predictions

• An exploration of how the Dead Sea Scrolls community interpreted the Hebrew Bible [Old Testament]

Although not famous in his own day, Philo of Alexandria was a prolific writer and Jewish philosopher contemporary to Jesus (20 BC - 50 AD). Because of his Hellenistic upbringing in the bustling city of Alexandria, Philo's interpretations of the Hebrew Bible were inspired by Aristotle, Plato, and all the other great Greek philosophers. He is thus known as the father of allegorical interpretation of the Scriptures, and his musings on the Divine Logos are not far from John's Christology. In fact, for the first centuries, Philo was believed to have been a church father!

On this page, you will find:

• An extensive index for Philo of Alexandria's connections to the Old and New Testaments

• A bibliography of various sources providing overviews, background, and commentary on Philo of Alexandria

• An overview of one of Philo's writings, exploring the small, obscure sect known as the Therapeutae

Believed by some scholars to have been in with the group that had Jesus of Nazareth crucified, Flavius Josephus was an aristocratic Jewish historian who wrote an account of Jewish history from Adam to his own time (just after Jesus' ascension). Not only does his writings make him the authoritive historian for the Jewish War and fall of the Temple, but also for multiple historical events referred to in passing in the canonical New Testament which are not otherwise explained.

On this page, you will find:

• An extensive index for Flavius Josephus' connections to the Old and New Testaments

• A bibliography of various sources providing overviews, background, and commentary on Flavius Josephus

• An exploration of how Flavius Josephus interpreted the Hebrew Bible [Old Testament]